Another traditional prevention that was often practised was to hang part of an animal that had died close to the grazing pasture or shelter of the herd, (usually the thigh or leg). Some believe that the significance of this practice can be traced back to ancient times when it was customary to hang an animal in a tree as a form of sacrifice to the gods. By avoiding the unfortunate event of stepping over a calf that is lying on the ground then a farmer was thought to be saved from misfortune. An animal in calf is destined to bring bad fortune to a farmer if it has twins, and should the twins have white streaks upon their backs twice the misfortune would ensue. Perhaps today with modern veterinary practices this may seem folly but according to tradition both omens were signs of darker forces at play.

On a positive note some European traditions are linked to prosperity, the most well known being that to carry the tip of a calf's tongue in a pocket would lead to good fortune in finance and also indicate that the carrier would be protected from any danger or rather, avoid the temptation of witchcraft to take hold within the herd. The Irish once practised protection for the herd by casting primrose flowers around the cattle sheds, and of course many farmers practised hanging particular pieces of wood with significant symbolism around the holding (See Mystical WWW Trees). Tarring the base of the tail and behind the ears of each animal was a popular practice in Scotland as a prevention too. It was believed that this practice would ensure that the milk would stay fresh and would not be stolen particularly by witches who were thought to love to drink on the milk of cattle.

A universal belief holds that to see a group of cattle laying on the ground or grazing close to one another indicates that rain is imminent. A period of clement weather can be expected if seen grazing on high ground.

Christmas Eve has long been a time when cattle have been thought to turn towards the east as if to pay homage to the birth of Christ and kneel down upon the ground, reputedly having the gift of speech on this night too. Perhaps this was been a reason why cattle were thought to have attracted the attention of darker forces who may have wished to conquer the Christian world and therefore focus their powers upon the animal as if to attack the very root of belief not just within the animal kingdom but to shake the faith of man himself.

In Scotland (UK) 'The black ox has trampled upon him' was a traditional saying often uttered when someone was fatally ill (black being the colour of darker forces, and cattle being associated with witchcraft). Long-horn cattle were traditionally thought to be the strongest cattle in the world according to Welsh folklore as told in the 'Ychen Bannog'. Their main ability was to lure monsters from hideouts and drag them away. In the battle to haul away a monster called 'Afanc' who dwelt beneath the water of the River Conway. In the struggle one of the oxen lost an eye which formed a pool called 'Pwll Llygad Ych', the pool of the ox's eye. After this the cattle were set to work but were said to have died from exhaustion helping to transport stones for a church that was to be erected in Cardigan. One rather large stone was to be their downfall and these species of fairy cattle were no more.

According to Welsh folklore, a freckled cow named 'Y Fuwch Frech' became a victim of witchcraft in a place called Cerrigydrugion. She grazed on Hiraethog Mountain and was known for supplying a healthy yield to anyone in need of milk. Witches were believed to be the dreaded enemy of cattle and it was said that a witch milked her not into a bucket but into a sieve. The witch was determined to have all the milk and so continued to draw milk until the cow was driven to madness. As a result she drowned herself in Llyn Dau Ychen. The witch had achieved her goal.

The name 'Fairy Cattle' is believed to have originated from ancient times when wild cattle wandered Britain. Many of the stories are recalled in Welsh folklore and tell of cattle that produced plentiful milk supplies for anyone who was in need of sustenance. Those who tried to capture one of the cattle were often thwarted and thankfully so, as it was also believed that the only reason the cattle would no longer give milk would be due to humankind growing greedy. Folklore tells of a butcher who tried to slaughter a cow but as he raised his hand the whole arm became paralysed. A person called the 'green lady' came to the cow's rescue and the animal escaped to the waters of Llyn Bafrog, and the cow swam away never to be seen in the community again.

In Wales (UK) a common practice amongst farmers wanting to ensure that the new offspring would be born white, it was believed that the cattle had to be mated in front of a location of the same colour. Hence the practice began of whitewashing walls to ensure a successful outcome. Farmers world-wide have often actively encouraged the presence of swallows on a cattle farm particularly in Europe as it was believed traditionally that to destroy the nests would result in the cows yielding milk with blood in it. Perhaps this is due to the many beliefs that surrounded the swallows in relation to the Crucifixion. Although modern science has discovered the disease 'mastitis', the symbolic associations of the swallow and the cow at the birth of Jesus are still intertwined within rural folklore.

CAT
Tabby and grey cats are believed almost universally to be harbingers of good fortune. Be prepared for a windfall should either decide to take-up residence in your home as one belief held was that this feline selection indicated that the homeowner was sure to come into money within the near future. White cats though have through time been viewed with some suspicion despite their colouring due to a problem with their hearing. Often being deaf a white cat was thought to be unlucky.

Cats have also been thought to be as useful as barometers at indicating possible changes in the weather; one sneezing indicating rain, whilst sitting with the back to the fire preludes a storm, and finally a cat sharpening its claws on a table leg indicated fine weather to be imminent (and some DIY). Perhaps because cats were believed to have meteorological connections as well as many listed here, sailors traditionally avoided saying the word 'cat' when about to embark on a sea voyage for fear of attracting misfortune on the ship and crew.

Perhaps we can begin to understand why the black cat has been seen to be a harbinger of good luck in some countries once we know that the Egyptians revered the Goddess Bast, symbolically portrayed as a black female cat. She was one of the most important goddesses having curative powers. The Romans also respected black cats and cats in general believing them to be sacred and associated with the Goddess Diana. The cat is still held as dear to many today and perhaps because of such associations but this has not always been the case.

Today though such a cat is almost universally seen to be an omen of misfortune for the owner except in the British Isles. Here, historically, a black cat has been treated to extreme luxuries and pampered almost beyond belief in order to ensure that the owner maintained prosperity. If you are not fortunate enough to be an owner of a black cat according to traditional folklore in the British Isles then you may be lucky to have one cross your path or stroll into your house - both events are positive signals and should bring good fortune in the British Isles. However these events signify the opposite to be true elsewhere.

The black cat was also used as part of elaborate rituals having great faith in the curative powers of the animal or usually to honour the gods. One ancient British belief once held followed that a small amount of blood from a black cats tail would heal any sore if rubbed on it directly or cure illness. Winston Churchill, the World War II British Prime Minister was reputed to believe that stroking black cats was an encouragement of good fortune and is alleged to have attributed some of his success during this time to this practice. In sport British cricketers have traditionally held it to be an omen of good fortune if a black cat is seen on entry to the field.

Elsewhere, a black cat is not to be trusted and has been associated with the powers of darkness. Known as a nocturnal creature since ancient times the black cat was believed to be an animal to be avoided. Witches were believed to be able to transform into a cat at will, Old Nick too was thought to be present on such occasions. To talk in the presence of a cat was thought to attract the attentions of witches, and such talk would reveal the person's secrets. The cat was thought to be serving the witch when it appeared, perhaps even the witch as it was possible for them to transform into a cat (dog, toad and fly). Having consorted with such company it is understandable why the black cat became something to fear, reaching a height in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries during purges to out witches.

In Britain many theatres have maintained the tradition of keeping a cat to catch any stray mice. Having a black cat though was thought to bring good fortune to the players and prosperity to the theatre itself except if it is seen running across the stage during a performance as misfortune will follow.

A common belief held was that cats have the ability to see earthbound energies, spirits and ghosts and that a cat will purr when one is present.

One of the most famous felines must surely be 'The Cheshire Cat' from Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll. The expression to 'grin like a Cheshire cat' is traditional that was common long before the story became well-known. The cat in the story and folklore is known for a grin that is ever present with an ability to vanish leaving only the grin visible. There are many thoughts on how the expression came to be so popular. One follows that the symbol of cat's head was used to identify Cheshire Cheese. The cheese is available in three colours - red, white and blue, the colours of the flags of Great Britain. The blue is produced naturally and was originally used quite often to treat wounds long before people knew that it contained penicillin. Another belief tells that the origins of the Cheshire Cat can be found in the coat of arms belonging to the family of the eleventh century Earl of Chester, which depict wolf heads which are open-mouthed.

The name 'Doctor's Devils' was given to the two black cats which accompanied one of the most famous British quack doctors in the eighteenth century. Gustavus Katterfelto toured the country providing flu cures which were ineffective. The cats were seen to be connected to his practice and signalled to many that Gustavus was dealing in more than medicinal remedies to attract people to part with their money.

The most notorious witch trial in England (UK) was perhaps was the first which took place in 1566 at Chelmsford and revolved around the actions of a black cat. Joan, the daughter of Agnes Waterhouse, Agnes herself and Elizabeth Francis, from Hatfield Perverell. Each in turn had ownership of a cat called 'Satan' which during the trial was said to be responsible for a number of events. Satan is said to have found Elizabeth a husband and son only after killing a man who refused her approaches. After giving the cat to Agnes and Joan, Satan was said to have drowned cows, spoilt dairy produce and even drove a man to commit suicide. Satan was said to be a creature that could transform into a toad or dog at will, and also possessed the power of speech. Joan was released after the trial but Agnes was hanged after her confession. Elizabeth received a sentence of a year in prison (later hanged for witchcraft in 1579).

'It's raining cats and dogs' has been an expression in common use since around the mid 1600's. A variation is known as 'it's raining pitchforks and shovels'. The origin of both phrases has been lost. Both expressions refer to excessively heavy downpours of rain. Perhaps these torrential downpours were thought to be extraordinary, so strange that anything was likely to fall out of the sky when the heavens opened.

'Taghgairm' was the ancient Scottish Gael term given to the ritual of placing a live cat over a fire and then spitting the poor unfortunate for divination purposes. As the cat was cooking other cats would appear and questions were said to be answered, the questions being posed by the person turning the spit. This ritual indicates that the cat was a creature thought highly of amongst the Gaelic people. In Ireland, Caithness, famous now for hand-blown glass work, now bears the name that was once given to the Catti Clan (cat-people).

CATERPILLAR
Although it may seem a rather odd custom, according to Yorkshire (UK) folklore the custom of throwing a caterpillar over the left shoulder was traditionally thought to bring good fortune. The only proviso was that it must be hairy - the caterpillar that is! Perhaps this is because caterpillars grow into butterflies which are known to represent the souls of the dead, and therefore caterpillars too embody the power of true faith. If thrown over the left shoulder they are being thrown into the face of the Devil or towards Old Nick who in this instance is powerless to affect them knowing that they are protected by God himself and can come to no harm.

CHICKENS
See Mystical WWW Mystical Birds : Chicken, Cockerel, Hen, Eggs.

COCKERELS
See Mystical WWW Mystical Birds : Cockerel, Eggs.

COW
See Mystical WWW Mystic's Menagerie : Calf. Hedgehog.
Ever heard the story that cows love to eat buttercups as doing so encourages better butter? This is a well known belief but in reality cows strongly dislike them. Or have you heard that in some countries according to tradition it was thought essential that the milkmaid should wash her hands in order to avoid the milk yield going dry? These rural beliefs indicate that the cow was an animal that afforded much attention. Seen as a lucky animal in Europe but often thought to be attractive to witches and hence many traditions were developed to protect them.

Like many other animals the cow can provide information on changes in the weather such as holding the tail upright indicates that rain is imminent. If the cow then walks on to slap the tail against a fence or wall then make sure you are prepared for a period of blustery weather. Meeting a herd of cows on the road has long been a sign of good fortune perhaps because the sight of these animals within a small community indicated that the village was ensured of food and milk, and that a healthy heard indicates that darker forces have been quelled.

On approaching the cows if a cow should low three times in your face it was thought to be am omen of death, perhaps because of the fact that the cow has connections with the birth of Christ being present in the stable and therefore has some understanding of imminent death. For the same reason it was also considered to be an ill omen to have one break into the garden.

In India and parts of the Far East the cow is revered as a sacred animal and held in high esteem within the community.

The cow was once used as currency in the ancient British Isles (one example evidenced in Ireland is that of how one slave woman was equivalent to three cows). Later cowhide was made into vellum used by clerics for writing ancient texts. The hide was bleached first.

St Columba and St Brigit have long been said to protect the cow. St Columba banned any cows being brought to the Island of Iona as he told that this action would only bring misfortune to the inhabitants 'where a cow is, there a woman is also, and where a woman is, trouble follows'! St Brigit was revered for protecting the herd, the milk yield and general health and fertility of the animals. If villages had a problem with an animal St Brigit would be invoked and respectfully requested to help with the problem.

Evidence exists that the original routes used by drovers, to move the cattle to market or to new pasture, were the main routes taken to be the first roads even up until the late eighteenth-century.

According to the ancient Celtic calendar the year could be divided into two halves as a result of watching the cattle move freely across the countryside. These were named 'Beltaine' and 'Samhain'. The former was indicated by the cattle seen moving to luscious green pasture with the onset of summer, whilst the latter was actually signalled by the need to build up the meat stocks for the winter. The culling also ensured that the management of the heard secured the strongest stock for the next year.

CRICKETS
This tiny little insect is full of contradictions and has been viewed with some suspicion throughout the ages, thought often to be a harbinger of illness, misfortune and death. To have one appear in the house was considered to be the worst of all omens, and the white cricket the most feared. John Dryden notes this fact in 'Fables, Ancient and Modern' from 1699 : 'Owls, Ravens, Crickets, seem the wave of death'.

A differing view of this creature, that also inspires positive success in many endeavours, being an omen of good fortune, can be read in the 'Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne'. Gilbert White wrote in 1789 that crickets 'are the housewife's barometer, foretelling her when it will rain; and are prognostic sometimes, she thinks, of ill or good luck, of the death of a near relation or the approach of an absent lover. By being the constant companions of her solitary hours they naturally become the objects of her superstition'.

A North American First Nation belief views the cricket in a different light appreciating the sound that this tiny insect makes. By boiling a number of crushed crickets and drinking the liquid it was thought possible to achieve a more beautiful singing voice.

CROCODILE
The phrase 'crocodile tears' is one that has permeated many languages, the origin stemming from a traditional Indian belief . Having killed the prey, and having proceeded to eat the body, the crocodile was thought to hang over the victim's head and shed tears before finishing the meal. It was also thought that to attract the victims the crocodile would utter a curious sound similar to a human moan. When the prey came to investigate the apparent distress signal the crocodile would leap.

CROSSBILL
See Mystical WWW : Mystical Birds Introduction.

CROW
See Mystical WWW : Mystical Birds.

CUCKOO
See Mystical WWW : Mystical Birds.

CURLEW
See Mystical WWW : Mystical Birds.